The frontier is central to the United States’ conception of its history and place in the world. It is an abstract concept that reflects the American mythology of progress and is rooted in religious ideas about land, labor, and ownership. Throughout the nineteenth century, these ideas became more than just abstractions. They were tested, hardened, and revised by U.S. officials and the soldiers they commanded on American battlefields. This violence took the form of the Civil War as well as the series of U.S. military encounters with Native Americans known as the Indian Wars. These separate yet overlapping campaigns have had profound and lasting consequences for the North American landscape and its peoples.
This course explores the relationship between religious ideology and violence in the last half of nineteenth century. Organized chronologically and geographically, we will engage with both primary sources and classic works in the historiography of the Indian Wars to examine how religion shaped U.S. policy and race relations from the start of the Civil War through approximately 1910.
Only for BMEN graduate students who need relevant work experience as part of their program of study. Final reports required. May not be taken for pass/fail credit or audited.
Prerequisites: ECON UN3211 and ECON UN3213 and ECON UN3412 and the director of the departmental honors programs permission. Students must have a minimum GPA of 3.7 in all required major courses, including calculus and statistics, prior to enrollment. The honors thesis seminar is a year-long course, beginning in the fall semester and ending in the spring semester. Students who have been approved to enter the workshop will be registered for both semesters by the department during the first two weeks of classes; 3 points are earned per semester. This workshop may only be taken by students applying for departmental honors, and it also fulfills the economics seminar requirement for the economics major and all joint majors. Students must see the director during mid-semester registration in the spring to discuss their proposed thesis topic, at which time they will be matched with appropriate faculty who will act as their thesis adviser. Students will meet their adviser over the course of the year at mutually agreed upon times. A rough draft of the thesis will be due during the first week of February in the spring semester, and the final draft will be due three weeks before the last day of classes. Please note that for those joint majors that require two seminars, one in economics and one in the other discipline (i.e. Political Science), the economics senior honors thesis seminar only fulfills the economics seminar requirement.
Nomads, natives, peasants, hill people, aboriginals, hunter-gatherers, First Nations—these
are just a handful of the terms in use to define indigenous peoples globally. The names these groups
use to describe themselves, as well as the varying religious practices, attitudes, and beliefs among
these populations are far more numerous and complex. For much of recorded history however,
colonial centers of power have defined indigenous peoples racially and often in terms of lacking
religion; as pagan, barbarian, non-modern, and without history or civilization.
Despite this conundrum of identity and classification, indigenous religious traditions often
have well-documented and observable pasts. This course considers the challenges associated with
studying indigenous religious history, as well as the changing social, political, and legal dimensions
of religious practice among native groups over time and in relationship to the state. Organized
thematically and geographically, we will engage with classic works of ethnohistory, environmental
history, indigenous studies, anthropology, and religious studies as well as primary sources that
include legal documentation, military records, personal testimony, and oral narrative.
The structure of the colloquium combines reading and analysis of texts by major theorists and critics. Each week discussions focus on key terms and analytical lenses in the history of art and art criticism. The course is designed to allow for guest presentations on particular issues by critics and writers, just as it draws on the expertise and participation of Columbia faculty. The aim is to develop students critical thinking and for them to learn directly from leading practitioners writing about modern and contemporary art. In addition to department faculty, writers for Artforum, Grey Room, Parkett, Texte zur Kunst, and October, among other venues, regularly participate in the colloquium.
This course will enable students to complete a research study of considerable length that will (i) enable them to explore a given area of research in substantive detail; (ii) put them on the path to true competence as independent researchers; and (iii) provide those who go on to apply to PhD programs with a substantial writing sample that shows off their technical abilities to the best advantage.
This course explores the set of possibilities presented by American Studies as a comparative field of study. We begin with a brief overview of the history of the field, and then we’ll focus primarily on the range of modes in which its interdisciplinary work has been undertaken (literary, historical, legal, digital, etc.). The idea here is not to arrive a comprehensive picture of American Studies, but to think about the many ways people have produced knowledge under its aegis. We will also focus on work by Columbia faculty, and sessions of the course are built around visits by faculty in the field to Columbia’s University Seminar in American Studies. Our guiding questions include: How does one do research in a multimedia, “cultural” environment? How does one situate oneself as an “intellectual” or “critic” in relation to one’s object of study? How does one write about different media/genres? How does one incorporate different methodologies into one research project?
English communication proficiency is important for academic achievement and career success. Columbia Engineering provides English communication instruction for students who would like to improve their communication skills in English. In a small group setting (15-20 students), enrollees will obtain opportunities to interact with the instructor and fellow classmates to improve communication skills.
In the first semester a series of workshops will introduce the field of international history and various research skills and methods such as conceptualization of research projects and use of oral sources. The fall sessions will also show the digital resources available at Columbia and how students can deploy them in their individual projects. In the second semester students will apply the skills acquired in the fall as they develop their proposal for the Master's thesis, which is to be completed next year at the LSE. The proposal identifies a significant historical question, the relevant primary and secondary sources, an appropriate methodology, what preliminary research has been done and what remains to be done. Students will present their work-in-progress.
This course will be the first part of a two part introduction to theoretical approaches to modern social science and cultural studies in Asian and African contexts. The first course will focus primarily on methodological and theoretical problems in the fields broadly described as historical social sciences - which study historical trends, and political, economic and social institutions and processes. The course will start with discussions regarding the origins of the modern social sciences and the disputes about the nature of social science knowledge. In the next section it will focus on definitions and debates about the concept of modernity. It will go on to analyses of some fundamental concepts used in modern social and historical analyses: concepts of social action, political concepts like state, power, hegemony, democracy, nationalism; economic concepts like the economy, labor, market, capitalism, and related concepts of secularity/secularism, representation, and identity. The teaching will be primarily through close reading of set texts, followed by a discussion. A primary concern of the course will be to think about problems specific to the societies studied by scholars of Asia and Africa: how to use a conceptual language originally stemming from reflection on European modernity in thinking about societies which have quite different historical and cultural characteristics.
This course introduces students to the different subfields of the discipline by presenting various perspectives on one key topic in political science. Throughout the course, both theoretical and empirical debates surrounding the study of democracy are explored. Although the specific topic may change from year to year, the goal and structure of the course will remain the same: to contribute to the students understanding of an important topic in political science and discuss it through the lens of the different subfields: American politics, comparative politics, international relations, and political theory. By doing so, students will also learn the technical language, important concepts, and different methodological approaches of each subfield. Please note that this course is only for students in the Political Science Departments M.A. Program.
Prerequisites: Departments permission. This course (required for all first-year graduate students in the English Department) introduces students to scholarly methodologies in the study of literature and culture. The Masters Seminar operates in tandem with the Masters Colloquium ENGL G5005, and requires short writing assignments over the course of the semester and extensive in-class participation. There are two sections of this course.
Students will be introduced to the fundamental financial issues of the modern corporation. By the end of this course, students will understand the basic concepts of financial planning, managing growth; debt and equity sources of financing and valuation; capital budgeting methods; and risk analysis, cost of capital, and the process of securities issuance.
This course provides an introduction to the major themes of sustainability science with a focus on the application of science to the practice of sustainability. Basic research, especially in the environmental and social sciences, explores the Earth as a system of systems, wherein the physical, chemical and biological systems interact with each other as well as human systems to affect our future. The results of this research are often difficult to apply in practice unless the research in translated into actionable advice for individuals, governments and private enterprise. Even so, the actual or perceived complexities of interactions between human and “natural” systems are often seen by decision makers as barriers to long-term planning, an essential element of pursuing sustainability. A simple definition of sustainability is based on intergenerational equity. Thus, the relationships between the here-and-now and possible global futures need to be understood. Students enrolled in this course will discuss: Definitions of sustainability, including environmental, cultural and socio-economic components; Technologies for observing natural systems and their impacts on human systems; Summaries of scientific understanding of global-scale climate dynamics, natural hazards, biodiversity, environmental stressors and anthropogenic inputs to coupled human-natural systems; An overview of the strengths and weaknesses of science-based prediction; An introduction to geoengineering; Developing the evidence base for sustainability decisions; An introduction to risk assessment, perception and management; Decision making under uncertainty; General principles of sustainability management. An undergraduate background in any field of science or engineering and mathematics through statistical and time-series analysis is required. An interest in coupled natural-human systems is desirable.
Topics in Technology Career Paths and Industry
is a discussion series where faculty, alumni, and industry professionals share their experiences navigating careers across the technology landscape.
This series offers a look at how the program’s curriculum translates into real-world skills and professional opportunities. Explore how the courses, projects, and experiences shape thinking, support building technical and professional toolkits, and launch impactful careers in technology.
Students will examine a range of career paths, gain insights into industry trends, and engage in conversations that connect classroom learning to practice.
Prerequisites: BUSI PS5001 Introduction to Finance/or Professor Approval is required Students will learn the critical corporate finance concepts including financial statement analysis; performance metrics; valuation of stocks and bonds; project and firm valuation; cost of capital; capital investment strategies and sources of capital, and firm growth strategies. At the end of this course students will understand how to apply these concepts to current business problems.
Prerequisites: Some background in ecology, evolutionary biology. Intended for those WITHOUT prior knowledge of statistics. This is an introduction to the theoretical principles and practical application of statistical methods in ecology and evolutionary biology. The course will cover the conceptual basis for a range of statistical techniques through a series of lectures using examples from the primary literature. The application of these techniques will be taught through the use of statistical software in computer-based laboratory sessions.
The course seeks to familiarize students with the basic derivatives (futures and options contracts). Both have played a role in the markets for many-many years (before the emergence of modern derivative markets in the 70s). Following the beginning of standardization at CBOE (1973) we have witnessed a dramatic growth in options markets and options are now traded on many exchanges around the world (CBOE, PHLX, NYSE etc.) Huge volumes of options are also traded over the counter (OTC), particularly on foreign exchange and interest rates. Many options are traded daily in the markets on a wide array of underlying assets from commodities to financial instruments (stocks, bonds, indexes, currencies, futures etc.) to… weather! The appearance of exotic options has driven volumes even higher in the OTC market providing investors with even wider possibilities for customizing risks borne and hedging against risks.
Students will examine the generally accepted account principles (GAAP) underlying financial statements and their implementation in practice. The perspective and main focus of the course is from the users of the information contained in the statements, including investors, financial analysts, creditors and, management. By the end of this class students will be able to construct a cash flow statement, balance sheet and decipher a 10K report.
This graduate-level course examines the scientific foundations, contemporary challenges, and applied practice of conservation biology in a human-dominated world. The course emphasizes how ecological theory, data, and models are used to inform real-world conservation decisions across policy, management, nonprofit, and private-sector contexts.
Designed for working professionals, the course integrates foundational conservation science with applied case studies, analytical interpretation, and professional communication. Students will engage with primary literature, policy-relevant syntheses, and practitioner perspectives to evaluate conservation tradeoffs, uncertainty, and decision-making under real constraints.
The Graduate Research Colloquium is a forum that offers two types of research seminars over the course of the semester. In the first, formerly the Graduate Colloquium, up to six outside speakers are invited by the graduate organizers to present research papers to an audience of graduates, faculty and others interested within the larger NYC Classics community, and afterwards to engage in discussion. The second is a Work-in-Progress seminar in which Columbia Classics graduate students present their research to their graduate peers in whatever format they deem most conducive to conveying their research to their audience and receiving feedback. The audience for these eight seminars is restricted to graduate students, the instructor who presides over the course, and any faculty the graduate student presenters choose should choose to invite. At least one semester of the Graduate Research Colloquium is required for MAO students and PhD students must attend the course in both the Fall and Spring semesters of their first year.
Prerequisites: MATH UN1102 and MATH UN1201 , or their equivalents. Introduction to mathematical methods in pricing of options, futures and other derivative securities, risk management, portfolio management and investment strategies with an emphasis of both theoretical and practical aspects. Topics include: Arithmetic and Geometric Brownian ,motion processes, Black-Scholes partial differential equation, Black-Scholes option pricing formula, Ornstein-Uhlenbeck processes, volatility models, risk models, value-at-risk and conditional value-at-risk, portfolio construction and optimization methods.
This interdisciplinary course, taken in the fall semester, is a comprehensive introduction to quantitative research in the social sciences. The course focuses on foundational ideas of social science research, including strengths and weaknesses of different research designs, interpretation of data drawn from contemporary and historical contexts, and strategies for evaluating evidence. The majority of the course is comprised of two-week units examining particular research designs, with a set of scholarly articles that utilize that design. Topics include: the “science” of social science and the role of statistical models, causality and causal inference, concepts and measurement, understanding human decision making, randomization and experimental methods, observation and quasi-experimentation, sampling, survey research, and working with archival data.
This course introduces students to important conversations within and about oral history through a series of curated public events.
This semester our events will explore how oral history lives in places and communities around New York City through a series of place-based events, curated in collaboration with partners around the city.
We meet approximately 6 times/semester.
This 1.5-credit onsite graduate course examines the ethical dynamics shaping contemporary technology management as innovation, regulation, and societal expectations rapidly evolve. Drawing on globally recognized perspectives and frameworks in responsible AI leadership and governance, the course explores how ethical considerations inform strategic decision-making across the technology lifecycle, from human-centered design to enterprise-scale digital transformation. Students critically analyze emerging challenges in artificial intelligence, data stewardship, collective decision-making systems, and value alignment, with attention to governance models, institutional accountability, and evolving regulatory frameworks. An emphasis is placed on evaluating the economic, social, and sustainable implications of technologies to strengthen ethical leadership discernment and strategic risk evaluation. The course equips students to critically navigate the ethical complexities of technological progress while aligning innovation with institutional values, societal responsibility, and long-term organizational integrity in a rapidly evolving global landscape.
Prerequisites: some background in ecology, evolutionary biology, and/or statistics is recommended. An introduction to the theoretical principles and practical application of statistical methods in ecology and evolutionary biology. The course will cover the conceptual basis for a range of statistical techniques through a series of lectures using examples from the primary literature. The application of these techniques will be taught through the use of statistical software in computer-based laboratory sessions.
Prerequisites: One semester of undergraduate statistics The data analysis course covers specific statistical tools used in social science research using the statistical program R. Topics to be covered include statistical data structures, and basic descriptives, regression models, multiple regression analysis, interactions, polynomials, Gauss-Markov assumptions and asymptotics, heteroskedasticity and diagnostics, models for binary outcomes, naive Bayes classifiers, models for ordered data, models for nominal data, first difference analysis, factor analysis, and a review of models that build upon OLS. Prerequisite: introductory statistics course that includes linear regression. There is a statistical computer lab session with this course: QMSS G4017 -001 -DATA ANALYSIS FOR SOC SCI
Prerequisites: Students must meet with the instructor prior to taking the course. This course is intended to help students increase their ability level in the four core language skills (reading, writing, listening, and speaking) from advanced to super-advanced. It serves as a bridge between mastering the overall Japanese language and using it for analysis, research, and literary criticism. This is a mandatory course for Ph.D students in Japanese Studies.
This course will introduce students to the main concepts and methods behind regression analysis of temporal processes and highlight the benefits and limitations of using temporally ordered data. Students study the complementary areas of time series data and longitudinal (or panel) data. There are no formal prerequisites for the course, but a solid understanding of the mechanics and interpretation of OLS regression will be assumed (we will briefly review it at the beginning of the course). Topics to be covered include regression with panel data, probit and logit regression of pooled cross-sectional data, difference-in-difference models, time series regression, dynamic causal effects, vector autoregressions, cointegration, and GARCH models. Statistical computing will be carried out in R.
This is an introduction to the theoretical principles and practical application of statistical methods in ecology and evolutionary biology. The course will cover the conceptual basis for a range of statistical techniques through a series of lectures using examples from the primary literature. The application of these techniques will be taught through the use of the R programming language in computer-based in-class exercises and homework assignments.
The purpose of this course is to provide students with a deep and broad understanding of stories and how they can be used in strategic communication. Drawing from a wealth of evidence-based and field-tested work on storytelling from both local and global contexts, students will learn why stories tend to be so powerful and—with a focus on the written, performed, and transmedia aspects of storytelling—gain experience in telling stories to achieve organizational objectives. Your skills will be sharpened through lively seminar discussions, storytelling exercises, workshop-style coaching, and presentations and on-camera practice. By the end, students will walk away with a new mindset and a host of strategies that can be immediately implemented in their everyday work.
This seminar is the first half of a two-semester practicum in which students will learn and practice the critical skills required to conceptualize, conduct, analyze and disseminate oral history projects in a range of contexts and communities.
In the Fall semester, we will learn project design, approaches to interviewing and other genres of oral history, remote and in-person audio recording, transcribing, indexing, and digital archiving. Students will have the option of working on oral history projects conducted in partnership with Fieldwork Partners or working on their own projects.
By the Spring semester course on Curating Oral Histories, students will be expected to be primarily working on their own projects. In the Spring we will focus most of our attention on the analysis and dissemination of oral histories, including audio editing, online presentation, museum exhibits, and other public oral history genres. Our spring work will culminate in a collaboratively curated interactive public exhibit
Students will learn fundamental marketing concepts and their application. By the end of this class you will know: the elements of a market, company strategy, how to identify customers and competition, the fundamental elements of the marketing mix (product, price, placement and promotion) how to research consumer behavior, and pricing strategies. Students will have extensive use of case study projects. Please note that there are separate online and in-person versions of the course, and the modalities offered may vary by semester. Be sure to check the modalities of the sections offered and enroll in the correct modality for your situation.
This course is about cost-benefit analysis and the economic evaluations of policies and projects. Cost benefit analysis (CBA) consists of a comprehensive set of techniques used to evaluate government programs. It is now routinely applied in such program areas as transportation, water projects, health, training and education, criminal justice, environmental protection, urban policy and even in the international arena such as foreign direct investment. Many of the techniques of CBA can also be applied to private sector decision-making. The objective of CBA is to determine whether the benefits of a particular program, policy or decision outweigh its costs. The techniques used to determine this are sometimes quite simple, but on other, increasingly frequent occasions are highly sophisticated. Sophisticated cost benefit studies are based on a framework that utilizes the basic concepts of economic theory. In addition, statistical and econometric analyses are often needed to estimate program effects from diverse available data. The course has two parts: methodology and practice. The goal is for students to be practically adept to undertake an independent cost-benefit analysis.
This course examines the science behind our understanding of how and why forests are responding to changing climatic baseline conditions, and how this can inform management, mitigation and restoration efforts going forward. We will study how climate change affects forest structure, function, biodiversity, and ecosystem services, and delve into the emerging field of climate-smart forestry. Students will integrate theory with hands-on field methods in a pair of 1-hectare forest plots, where they will learn how to measure, analyze, and interpret climate impacts at local scales.
This course is designed to expose students in the QMSS degree program to different methods and practices of social science research. Seminar presentations are given on a wide range of topics by faculty from Columbia and other New York City universities, as well as researchers from private, government, and non-profit settings. QMSS students participate in a weekly seminar. Speakers include faculty from Columbia and other universities, and researchers from the numerous corporate, government, and non-profit settings where quantitative research tools are used. Topics have included: Now-Casting and the Real-Time Data-Flow; Art, Design - Science in Data Visualization; Educational Attainment and School Desegregation: Evidence from Randomized Lotteries; Practical Data Science: North American Oil and Gas Drilling Data.
This course is designed to expose students in the QMSS degree program to different methods and practices of social science research. Seminar presentations are given on a wide range of topics by faculty from Columbia and other New York City universities, as well as researchers from private, government, and non-profit settings. QMSS students participate in a weekly seminar. Speakers include faculty from Columbia and other universities, and researchers from the numerous corporate, government, and non-profit settings where quantitative research tools are used. Topics have included: Now-Casting and the Real-Time Data-Flow; Art, Design - Science in Data Visualization; Educational Attainment and School Desegregation: Evidence from Randomized Lotteries; Practical Data Science: North American Oil and Gas Drilling Data.
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), a methodology to assess the environmental impact of products, services, and industrial processes is an increasingly important tool in corporate sustainability management. This course teaches both the theoretical framework as well as step-by-step practical guidelines of conducting LCAs in companies and organizations. Particular emphasis is placed on separating the more academic, but less practically relevant aspects of LCA (which will receive less focus) from the actual practical challenges of LCA (which will be covered in detail, including case studies). The course also covers the application of LCA metrics in a companies’ management and discusses the methodological weaknesses that make such application difficult, including how these can be overcome. Product carbon footprinting (as one form of LCA) receives particular focus, owing to its widespread practical use in recent and future sustainability management.
This course has two goals. One, it is designed to expose students in the QMSS degree program to different methods and practices of social science research. Seminar presentations are given on a wide range of topics by faculty from Columbia and other New York City universities, as well as researchers from other settings. Two, it is also designed to give students important professional development skills, particularly around academic writing, research methods and job skills.
This course examines the strategic role for communication in driving organizational outcomes. It covers key aspects of communication management, including how to plan, implement and measure strategic communication initiatives. Students learn to assess organizational needs, identify stakeholders and draft messaging that speaks credibly to a variety of constituencies, both internal and external. We also emphasize fundamental business skills, such as interpreting financial reports and understanding the language of business.
Prerequisites: BUSI PS5020 Introduction to Marketing/or Professor Approval is required Students will develop analytical skills used to formulate and implement marketing driven strategies for an organization. Students will develop a deeper understanding of marketing strategies and how to implement tactics to achieve desired goals. Students will work on case study projects in both individual and team based projects. By the end of this course, you will be able to develop a marketing strategy based on market assessments and company needs.
The purpose of this course is to provide an overview of trends and best practices in corporate communications relating to sustainability, with a particular focus on global sustainability reporting frameworks and green marketing communications. It is designed for those who hold/will hold positions in organizations with responsibilities for communicating the sustainability goals, challenges and achievements, as well as accurately and honestly communicating the environmental aspects of an organization's products and services. Increasingly, large corporations are creating c-suite roles or dedicated departments to oversee this function. More typically, multiple functions contribute information such as: Corporate Communications, Marketing, Community Affairs, Public Policy, Environmental Health & Safety, R&D, Facilities, Operations and Legal. Benefits of reporting range from building trust with stakeholders, and uncovering risks and opportunities; to contributing to stronger long-term business strategy, and creating new products and services.
Prerequisites: some familiarity with the basic principles of partial differential equations, probability and stochastic processes, and of mathematical finance as provided, e.g. in MATH W5010. Prerequisites: some familiarity with the basic principles of partial differential equations, probability and stochastic processes, and of mathematical finance as provided, e.g. in MATH W5010. Review of the basic numerical methods for partial differential equations, variational inequalities and free-boundary problems. Numerical methods for solving stochastic differential equations; random number generation, Monte Carlo techniques for evaluating path-integrals, numerical techniques for the valuation of American, path-dependent and barrier options.
This course is designed for students interested in entrepreneurship and becoming CEO/Founders or leaders in industry as innovators and operators. The class is appropriate for those with a strong interest in new ventures or innovation at the corporate level, or for those who want to develop an entrepreneurial mindset even if you have no plans to start a business. This includes potential entrepreneurs, those interested in the financing of new ventures, working in new ventures, or a portfolio company, or in broader general management of entrepreneurial firms. Entrepreneurial topics include: the entrepreneurial journey, founders & co-founders, the art of the pitch, shaping opportunities, traditional business models, business models for the greater good, the lean startup method and the hypothesis-driven approach, technology strategy, product testing, marketing strategy, entrepreneurial marketing, venture financing and emerging developments. Academic readings, analysis of case studies, class discussions, independent exercises, reading assessments, team work, guest speakers, investor panels, weekly deliverable options and a final investor pitch are the main modalities used to help you learn and assist you on your entrepreneurial path. There are no prerequisites for this course.
This course provides an overview of the science related to observing and understanding sea-level rise, which has a profound impact on the sustainability of coastal cities and ecosystems. In modern research, sea-level rise is viewed as a complex response of the Earth “system of systems” to climate change. Measuring ongoing sea-level change is challenging due to the great natural variability of sea level on short time scales caused by tides, weather, and ocean currents. Interpreting measurements so that one can assess (and mitigate against) potential economic and societal impacts of sea-level rise is crucial but can be complicated, since so many Earth-system processes play a role. Some of these processes are related and others are unrelated to climate change; some of the latter are natural and others are of anthropogenic origin. Students enrolled in this course will through lectures and class discussions address topics related to the underlying observational basis for sea-level rise. Given the complexity of sea level rise, it is important for those in technical positions to understand the systems level interactions that not only lead to rising waters but also the consequences that these changes inflict on other parts of our environment. What we hear most commonly is that sea level rise will affect hundreds of millions of people living in coastal areas and make those populations susceptible to flooding. But in addition to this community effect, sea level rise also have dramatic effects on coastal habitats, leading to issue such as erosion, soil contamination, and wetland flooding, just to name a few. This course will introduce and prepare students to develop a more comprehensive and holistic approach to sea level rise. By training students to observe, measure, interpret, and begin to predict how sea level rise affects populations and communities differently, students will be in strong positions to address, mitigate, and adapt to the challenges more effectively using evidence-based approaches.